<p>The lights at the top of the tower—six carbon arc lamps—had to be lighted by hand every night at the very top for many years. A worker didn't climb up but actually rode an elevator to the top. Incandescent lamps and mercury vapor lamps were&nbsp;eventually installed in the 1920s and 1930s. Finally, in the 1940s a switch was installed enabling workers to turn the lights off rather than having to go to the top of the tower.&nbsp;</p><p>When the towers were first erected they used six carbon arc
lamps and were lightened every night by a worker who rode an elevator to the
top of the framework. In the 1920s, incandescent lamps replaced the carbon arc
and in 1936, mercury vapor lamps were installed. In the 1940s, a central
switch was installed in the moonlight tower system, allowing Austin workers&nbsp;to shut off
all of the towers with a single action.&nbsp;</p>

Placed on the National Historic Register on July 12, 1976, the 17 towers are still in use today. 

The towers include this brief historic marker.

Google Maps: Austin Moonlight Towers locations.

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This is one of seventeen still-functioning light towers in Austin that were part of the thirty-one moonlight towers erected in 1895. These towers in Austin are the only known surviving carbon arc lamps street light towers from the 19th century in the world.  The towers were named moonlight because of their height of approximately 165 feet, and the “artificial moonlight" they used to produce. Each of the towers was crowned with a circle of six carbon arc lamps which produced the light. In the 1800s, several major cities had tall arc towers, including New York, Los Angeles, San Jose, Baltimore, Detroit etc.  Austin purchased 31 already used moon towers from the city of Detroit, which in the 1890s had the largest tower lighting system in the country. Today, the 17 remaining Moonlight Towers in Austin, stand as a reminder of an era when the moonlight tower lighting system was common in U.S. cities. They are now designated as official state archaeological landmarks (1970), and are listed in the National Register of Historic Places (July 12, 1976).

Moonlight Towers

Starting at the Bullock Museum and concluding at the Austin History Center, this tour includes stops at the state capitol, numerous landmark downtown Austin buildings, and everything in-between from Confederate monuments to African American churches and schools.

Texas State Capitol and Austin History Tour

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<div>The First Congress of the Republic of Texas created the General Land Office on December 22, 1836, to manage its public lands, which included record keeping,&nbsp; organizing surveys, issuing titles, and raising funds. When the United States grafted the Texas Republic into its Union in 1845, the federal government refused to take Texas' land as debt payments. Hence, Texas became the only state to own its own public lands, as well as the tidelands and roughly ten miles of the Gulf of Mexico. In time, this would prove to be a fruitful deal for Texas.&nbsp; The historic Land Office Building was designed by the acclaimed German-born architect Christoph Conrad Stremme and completed in 1858; it's Austin's oldest surviving state government office building.&nbsp;</div><div><br></div><div>Texas is the only public-land state with complete control over its public lands and the money gained from that ownership has mostly gone towards the Permanent School Fund. The Texas Constitution of 1876 set aside half of Texas' remaining public lands to establish a Permanent School Fund (PSF), to help finance public schools. As a result, the agency has put $6.1 billion into the fund since 1854. In fact, the public-land funds provide public schools with $700 million annually.&nbsp;</div><div><br></div><div>The building features a medieval-castle style known as Rundbogenstil, or "rounded arch" around the windows and doors. The exterior walls are limestone rubble smoothed over with stucco and scored to simulate cut stone blocks. The Land Office was completed in 1857 on the southeast corner of the Texas State Capitol grounds.&nbsp;</div><div><br></div><div>The building was designed by Christoph Conrad Stremme (1807–1877), an engineer and architect, was born in Hanover, Germany in 1807. Stremme was one of the many German immigrants to arrive in the Texas interior lands during the mid-nineteenth century, as well as one of the many Germans and central Europeans to come to the U.S. during a time of famine and political unrest in Europe, including a failed German revolution.&nbsp; However, his story includes some markedly impressive achievements.&nbsp;</div><div><br></div><div>He studied at the University of Sciences and the Academy of Arts and Architecture in Berlin followed by obtaining his Ph.D. at the University of Giessen.&nbsp; He later became a member of the Royal Hannoverian Commission on Public Buildings and of the Society for Advancement of Industry. Furthermore, Stremme received a Russian order and title of hereditary nobleman and Czar Nicholas I appointed to him as court counselor. In the same year, he was appointed a professor of architecture and civil engineering at the Imperial University at Dorpat (present Tartu), where he was also a member of the Dorpater Naturforschender Gesellschaft, a group devoted to the study of natural sciences, and the Gelehrte Estuische Gesellschaft, a learned society of Estonia. In 1848 he was elected to honorary membership in the Livonian Agricultural Society for outstanding work in architecture, shortly before he emigrated to the United States.&nbsp;</div><div><br></div><div>His move to the U.S. did not stop Stemme from gaining many accolades and success. In 1853, he served under Lt. Nathaniel Michler as part of an exploration party; he aided in surveying the Mexican boundary.&nbsp; For three years after that project (1853 - 1856), he published in the San Antonio Zeitung at least eight scientific papers. Stremme was also one of the first professionally trained architects in Texas. In 1855 he became a draftsman at the General Land Office and, by 1858, his design of the state's new land office came to fruition.&nbsp;<br><br><div>The building functioned as the state's land office building until 1917 when the agency moved to a larger building across the street. From 1919 until 1989, the building housed museums run by the Daughters of the Republic of Texas and the Texas Division of the Daughters of the Confederacy.&nbsp;</div><div><br></div><div>In April 1989,&nbsp; the legislature approved a $4.5 million renovation project to restore the building to a 1890s-era style the development of a permanent exhibit on the history of the Texas State Capitol on the first floor and floor space on the second floor for traveling exhibits, which remains today along with the addition of a Texas Department of Transportation Travel Center.</div></div>

Constructed in 1856, this building is the oldest extant government office building in Austin. The structure was designed by German architect Conrad C. Stremme, a member of the Royal Hannoverian Commission on Public Buildings who was educated at the University of Giessen in Germany. The decision to select this architect and the German-inspired building design is a reflection of the many German immigrants who arrived in Texas during the mid-19th century. The building also stands as a reminder of the unique nature of Texas' annexation into the United States. This building served as the state's land office until 1917 and was home to a museum from 1919 until 1989. Following renovation in the early 1990s, the building became home to exhibits related to the state of Texas and its capital.  

Old Land Office Building (Austin, Texas)

<p>The Capitol Visitors Center is housed in the restored 1856 General Land Office building, the oldest surviving state office building. The building is located on the southeast corner of the Capitol Grounds. The “castle” was designed by the German architect Christoph Conrad Stremme to serve as the General Land Office (from 1857–1917). William Sydney Porter (O. Henry) worked here as a draftsman from 1887–91. The building was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1970.</p><p>The first Capitol structure burnt through the grounds in November of 1881. The same year architect Elijah E. Myers won the competition to design the new Capitol building. The new Capitol building, intended to house the state government, was officially opened after 15 months of construction. The foundation and basement walls, second-floor walls and the copper roof were constructed a few years later. The zinc Goddess of Liberty statue on top of the dome was placed in February of 1888.</p><p>



</p><p>While in the Capitol, most people like to see the legislative chambers. The House Chamber, the Capitol's largest room, is located on the western side of the second floor and houses 150 representatives when the House is in session. The original flag from the Battle of San Jacinto and other artifacts are on display in the House Chamber. Also located on the second floor, but on the eastern side, the Senate Chamber still contains the original Senator desks purchased in 1888. A collection of 15 historical paintings adorn the walls of the Senate Chamber.<br>
<br>Other points of interest in the Capitol include the original Governor's Office, original Supreme Court Courtroom, and original State Library. Additionally, several monuments, including one dedicated to the heroes of the Alamo, are located on the grounds of the Capitol Complex.</p>

The Capitol Visitors Center is housed in the restored 1856 General Land Office building, the oldest surviving state office building. This building served as the Land Office for about 60 years. Today it is the oldest surviving state office structure and houses the Texas Capitol Visitors Center. It was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1970 and declared a National Historic Landmark in 1986. 

Texas State Capitol Visitors Center

<p>The founding of the School of Law of the Texas State
University for Negroes was a result of Texas’ attempts to preserve segregation
in response to the legal challenge presented by the court case Sweatt v.
Painter. In early 1946, Heman Marion Sweatt, a Houston mail carrier and former
teacher who held a bachelor’s degree from Wiley College, applied to the
University of Texas (UT) School of Law. Though qualified for admittance, the
school rejected Sweatt’s application due to the state’s segregated education
laws. Since there were no law programs for African Americans in Texas, UT
President Theophilus Painter informed Sweatt that he should apply for an
out-of-state scholarship, provided by the government in order to meet the
“separate but equal” clause of the Plessy v. Ferguson ruling (1896) that justified
segregation. </p>



<p>Sweatt responded by filing a suit against UT and Painter in
May 1946. Backed by the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People
(NAACP), the case forced the courts to weigh in on Black educational
opportunities, which declared that Sweatt’s constitutional rights had been
violated due to the lack of a Black law school within state boundaries. The
court gave the government six months to rectify the situation. While seeking to
bolster the status of Prairie View University (now Prairie View A&amp;M) – the state’s
lone Black public university – the legislature also passed Senate Bill 140 in March
1947. The law established the Texas State University for Negroes in Houston
(now Texas Southern University), with plans for a school of law to be
established immediately in Austin. </p>



<p>Even before the bill passed, UT administrators and
professors had begun making plans for the new law school. It would draw on
faculty from the flagship campus and almost immediately began receiving donations
for a small library. According to author Gary M. Lavergne, the university
leased four rooms on the bottom floor of a multi-tenant building located on 13th
Street at the edge of the Texas State Capitol grounds. Derided by NAACP lawyers
as a basement, the rooms were more accurately on the ground floor below the
raised entrance of the structure, though it was necessary to descend a few
steps to access the main door located under the gallery porch above. The
legislature never meant for this structure to be the permanent home of the
school, but rather a temporary residence hastily assembled to derail the Sweatt
case as the permanent university took shape in Houston.</p><p>Unfortunately for champions of segregation, the school’s
first semester was an abject failure. Sweatt refused his offer of admittance to
the school, while the NAACP worked hard to dissuade enrollment of other
students. Not a single student signed up for any of the three classes during
the first registration period held in mid-March 1947, just days after SB 140
became law. Local Black activists discouraged potential students, and only
three enrolled the next fall, with one dropping out almost immediately. In late
September, a <i>Daily Texan </i>article
noted that Henry Doyle – an Austin grocer – was the only student enrolled and
therefore “the center of attention of five teachers” that constituted the
school’s part-time faculty. Doyle was also the only student to move with the
program to Houston when it and its meager collection of books became a
component of the Texas State University for Negroes.</p><blockquote>"I am pleased to advise that your qualifications heretofore established and your
application heretofore made will entitle
you to attend the new school now being
opened at 104 East 13th Street, Austin,
Texas."&nbsp; Letter from E. J. Mathews to Heman Sweatt, March 3, 1947.<br></blockquote>



<p>While the supposed goal of the school was – according to a <i>Daily Texan</i> article published March 2,
1947 – to “give instruction equivalent to the same instruction being offered at
the University of Texas School of Law,” the reality clearly did not approach
the standard. Though segregated education in Texas had never been “separate but
equal,” comparison of the established UT School of Law with the improvised basement
institution illustrated just how superficial this standard had become. Even though
the school’s instructors came from UT, there was no comparison in terms of the courses
offered, access to expertise, library resources, student experience, or
professional connections through alumni – of which there were none. NAACP
lawyers argued that beyond the physical deficiencies of makeshift solutions such
as the “Basement School,” intangible factors also made segregated education
inherently unequal. This argument won the day when presented to the Supreme
Court in 1950, which struck down the lower courts’ decisions and declared
Sweatt’s denial of admission unconstitutional. This victory against segregated
higher education would inform later challenges to the “separate but equal”
doctrine, most notably the celebrated case of Brown v. Board of Education of
Topeka in 1954.&nbsp; </p>

<br><br><br><br>

In 1947, the University of Texas leased four rooms in a three-story building that once stood at this location just a hundred feet from the state capitol. The university used this location to house the "School of Law of the Texas State University for Negroes." The school was an attempt to provide separate facilities for the training of African American lawyers during the state's appeal of Heman Marion Sweatt's challenge to the segregation of higher education as part of the Sweatt v. Painter lawsuit. Famously derided by Sweatt's NAACP attorneys as "The Basement School" due to its location slightly below street level, it failed to enroll any registrants during its first semester and at its peak had only three students. In the summer of 1948, the school - and a single student - moved to Houston to become part of the newly established Texas State University for Negroes (now Texas Southern). 

"The Basement School" (1947) and Sweatt v. Painter (1950)

<p>  The Texas State Capitol Building in downtown Austin is often recognized as one of the nation’s most beautiful state capitol buildings. The Capitol Building is located at Capitol Square which was originally selected as the site of the Capitol of the Republic of Texas. It was completed in 1853. However, the Greek Revival structure burned in late 1881 leaving the state of Texas without a fitting seat of government. Fortunately, The Capitol Board, who were in the building at the time of the fire, already had plans for a new structure.</p><p>   Construction plans began in January 1882. To mark the start a groundbreaking ceremony was held a month later. Foundation work on the building began in March 1885. The ceremonious environment continued over the years until the completion December 8, 1888. E.E. Myers, known for his work on the Michigan and Colorado Capitols, was selected to design the new building. Contractors were offered an interesting trade in exchange for their expertise-- three million acres in the Texas Panhandle deeded to them when the work was finished.. From the foundation there gradually rose a visual marvel. The exterior was supposed to be limestone originally, but the stone that was quarried streaked when exposed to air. Some alternately proposed granite, a harder, more expensive stone. The debate stunted the construction process for almost two years. But, a decision, after long discussions, was finally reached. Builders settled on “Sunset Red” granite graciously donated by its owners in what is now Marble Falls, Texas.</p><p>   The structure of the walls and the dome were beginning to take shape by mid-1887. When the dome was completed, the Goddess of Liberty statue was placed atop it. The Capitol measured more than 310 feet high, with 392 rooms, 924 windows, and 404 door. The labor was daunting. It took more than 1,000 people, including engineers, contractors, laborers, and craftsmen seven years to build at a cost of $3,744,600, which was a vast fortune for the time. The intricate structure is the largest of all state capitol buildings, and it is the second largest in total size behind only the Federal Capitol in Washington D.C. As everything always must be “bigger in Texas,” The Texas state Capitol Building actually surpasses the National Capitol in height, rising seven feet higher.</p><p>  On April 21, 1888, San Jacinto Day, the Capitol formally opened to the public. The next month was full of celebrations and festivities. Celebrants marked the dedication and were organized to celebrate the “splendor that was befitting the glory of Texas and the grandeur of that building.” Patriotic displays were featured throughout the night. Crowds lined Congress Avenue and filled the Capitol grounds to watch parades and ceremonies.</p><p>  Today, the building sits in the heart of Austin. Tourists flock to the site to visit and explore the history of each politician and political act made in the building. It is a fitting emblem of a state that once declared its total independence from the Union … where history continues to be made.</p>

<p>The Texas State Capitol was designed by architect Elijah Myers whose work included the designs used in the creation of the Michigan and Colorado capitol buildings. The Texas capitol building was completed in 1888 and placed in the National Register of Historic Places in 1970. In 1986, it was designated a National Historic Landmark for its "significant contribution to American history."</p>

Texas State Capitol Building 

<p>The Capitol housed a surprisingly diverse group of legislators in the Reconstruction Era during the late 1800s. 52 African-American men served in the legislature during Texas’ Reconstruction Era.[6] 36 of them served only 10-20 years after the Emancipation Proclamation. They participated in a historically and predominately white political field and fought for the basic rights of their communities. Most of the bills introduced by African-American legislature did not get passed but materialized at a later date. During the period of reconstruction, the biracial legislature pushed for public education, resulting in Texas A&amp;M and Prairie View A&amp;M. According to historian Dale Baum these universities "are today the only two tangible achievements of the biracial democracy which was briefly brought to power in Texas by black political activism in the late 1860s and 1870s,".[7] While the biracial legislature of the Reconstruction Era worked well they were also privy to the upcoming separate-but-equal oppression and segregation. </p><p>The Capitol was the place where laws were passed that started the period of “separate but equal” segregation. In 1891 the 22nd Legislature passed segregation statutes or what are now known as the Jim Crow laws.[8] Jim Crow laws were used to enforce segregation and allowed punishments to be given when different races intermingled. While Jim Crow laws varied slightly by state, the most common laws prevented marriage between different races and barred shop owners from serving other races.[9] In Texas specifically, the County Education Board was required to build two schools, one for white children and one for black children.[10] While the tour is about the 1928 Masterplan, which was passed by the Austin City council, The Texas legislature was responsible for passing laws (like the Jim Crow laws) that encouraged the ideology that allowed the 1928 Masterplan to get established.</p><p>The Texas African-American Monument was erected in 2016 by Ed Dwight, a Denver based sculptor, after a long period of 25 years in legislative deliberation.[11, 12] In 1991 the Texas legislature passed an SCR (Statewide Central Register) to require the State Preservation Board to explore monuments to honor historical figures from all ethnicities. In 1993 an SCR was passed that required the State Preservation Board to include a monument for African-American contributions in their long term master plan for the Capitol grounds.[13] In 1997 a bill was passed that established the Emancipation Juneteenth Cultural and Historical Commission who started to envision the monument. A bill was passed in 2011 expanded the scope of the monument to have a larger representation of African-American culture than just Emancipation. The current monument, constructed out of bronze and granite, was finally unveiled on November 19, 2016. One half of the statue depicts the emancipation of 48 former slaves and the other half focuses on the contributions that African-Americans have made to the state.[14] The statue depicts Barbara Jordan ( first African American elected to the Texas Senate after Reconstruction), Estevanico de Dorantes (the first African to set foot on Texas soil), Hendrick Arnold (a special agent in the Battle of the Republic and in the Indian wars), and Sam McCullough (one of the first casualties of the Texas Revolution).[15, 16]</p>

<p>The current Texas Capitol, built in 1882-1888, houses the legislative branch for the state of Texas; the building has seen many political changes from 1888-2023. Crafted out of red granite, the Capitol is the 6th tallest capitol building in the United States standing at 302.64 feet from the ground level to the tip of the star of the Goddess of Liberty.[1] The capitol building contains important government offices including both the Senate and House of Representatives’ Chambers, the Legislative Reference Library, and the Governor’s Office.[2] The Capitol also houses monuments located on the Capitol grounds, including the Texas African American Monument.[3] The monument is intended to honor historical figures from all ethnicities and depicts Juneteenth, the emancipation of former slaves, and modern African-American figures that have shaped Texas.[4, 5]</p>

The Texas African-American Monument at the Texas Capitol

<p>Many Confederate monuments were erected in the former Confederate states and Border States in the decades following the Civil War (1861-1865). In many instances, the monuments were erected by the United Daughters of the Confederacy. While the appearance of memorials for Confederate soldiers at cemeteries and battlefields serve a purpose of sharing information about the history of the war and preserving the memory of those who died under the Confederate banner, most of the monuments erected in prominent locations in the early 1900s were part of an effort to bolster white supremacy.&nbsp;</p><p>For modern political leaders, the association&nbsp;between these monuments and their intent is deeply troubling.&nbsp;“The removal of Confederate iconography from the Texas Capitol and its grounds is long overdue," stated Texas state representative Eric Johnson in the summer of 2017. "Just forty steps from my office is a plaque that praises the ‘heroic deeds’ of the Confederate Army and states that the underlying cause of the Civil War was not slavery.”</p>

Erected in 1903 by a group led by Confederate veterans, this monument features Confederate President Jefferson Davis flanked by bronze figures that depict the navy, artillery, infantry, and cavalry. The monument was dedicated to the memory of Texas men who died in service to the short-lived Confederate States of America, a rebel government that attempted to secede from the United States but were defeated during the American Civil War (1861-1865). Located on south grounds of the Texas State Capitol, five bronze figures on a gray granite base flank Confederate president Jefferson Davis, a curious choice given the widespread criticism of Davis's presidency by many Texans. Etched in the base are the names of the thirteen states which formed the Confederacy as well as main the battles fought between 1861 and 1865. Pompeo Coppini executed the bronze figures and Frank Teich erected the monument. 

In recent years, many residents have called for the removal of this monument owing to its glorification of Jefferson Davis and others fought for slavery and against the United States government. 

Confederate Soldiers Monument (Austin,TX)

<div>Goyens was born in 1794 in Moore County, N. Carolina to a free mulatto and a white woman. It is believed that Goyens arrived in Nacogdoches, TX in the early 1820s. &nbsp;During his time in East Texas, he became a successful businessman. As well as being a Blacksmith and a wagon maker, he was involved with hauling freight from Natchitoches, Louisiana. On an 1826 trip to Louisiana, William English attempted to sell Goyens into slavery. &nbsp;In order to gain his freedom, English demanded that Goyens turn over his own slave woman and work off his debt, somewhat like an indentured servant. Goyens could still participate in trade himself within this agreement. Upon returning to Nacogdoches, Goyens successfully sought legal negation of this agreement.<br><br></div><div><div>Goyens had Cherokee ancestry, which likely was instrumental to his success as a mediator and interpreter for Sam Houston. In 1832, Goyens married his wife Mary, a white widower from Georgia. Although interracial marriages would have been unusual at the time, Goyens possessed a light complexion that is believed afforded him greater social mobility. After the revolution was over, Goyens purchased an estate outside of Nacogdoches that later became known as Goyens’ Hill. Despite efforts by his white neighbors to challenge and take his wealth, Goyens acquired great deals of wealth in real estate during his later life.</div></div><div><br></div>

This historical marker commemorates the contributions of African Americans, both slave and free, who supported the movement for Texas independence from Mexico between 1835 and 1836. Among those recorded as having participated in the war are Hendrick Arnold and William E. (Bill) Goyens. Arnold was a guide and soldier in Ben Milam’s Texas Army at the Siege of Bexar and the Battle of San Jacinto. Goyens served as an interpreter and liaison for Sam Houston in regards to the Cherokee Native Americans and helped negotiate a treaty.


African Americans in the Texas Revolution Historical Marker

<div>The school has been involved in a few high profile cases. In the 1950 case Sweatt vs. Painter, Herman Marion Sweatt sued the school in a civil rights case due to being refused admission. When the case was first brought to court, there was no law school in the state that admitted Black students. The case was continued for six months by the Texas trial court to give the state time to establish a law school for Blacks in Houston. The Supreme Court ruled that the new school in Houston did not offer an equal education and ordered that Sweatt be admitted to the University of Texas School of Law.&nbsp;</div><div><br><div>The school was involved in another high profile court course in the late nineties. In the 1996 case Hopwood vs. Texas, a White American woman sued the school because she believed that minority candidates with fewer credentials had been admitted when she hadn't due to affirmative action. This case went to the United States Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit, which ruled that race may not be used as reason for admittance for the purpose of creating a more diverse student body. However, Supreme Court case Grutter vs. Bollinger (2003), which involved the University of Michigan, effectively reversed the 1996 court decision by ruling that the U.S. Constitution "does not prohibit the law school's narrowly tailored use of race in admissions decisions to further w compelling interest in obtaining the educational benefits that flow from a diverse student body."</div></div><div><br></div>

The first classes of the University of Texas (UT) were held on September 15, 1883. Of the original 218 students, 52 were in the law program. The law professors were Oran M. Roberts, former Governor of Texas, and Robert S. Gould, former Texas Supreme Court Justice. The law school was one of only two schools housed at the university at the time. The other was the school of liberal arts.

First Classes of the University of Texas of Law School- Historical Marker

<div>The limestone and brick Lundberg Bakery was built in 1876 by Swedish immigrant and baker, Charles Lundberg (1835 - 1895), who had settled into Austin during 1872 at a time when several Swedes moved to the Texas interior. Indeed, the bakery along with the Swedish Hill Historic District and Texas Wesleyan College are reminders of that Swedish influence.&nbsp;&nbsp;</div><div><br></div><div>As early as the mid-1830s, Swedes emigrated to Texas. When Swen Jaensson arrived 1844, he acquired a plantation near modern-day Houston and befriended Sam Houston, who urged him to recruit Swedish immigrants to settle the sparsely populated Texas interior. Roughly twenty-five Swedes moved to the Houston area in 1848 but subsequently departed as a group for the Austin area. Over the next several decades, notably after the Civil War and before the Depression of 1873, numerous Swedish immigrants erected homes and opened businesses in downtown Austin; the Swedish enclave grew to become known as Swede Hill.</div><div><br></div><div>Lundberg arrived during this time, in 1872, and quickly enjoyed success as a baker in downtown Austin. He built the bakery in 1876 in the heart of the business and government districts of Austin, which gained him a noticeable amount of attention and notoriety; one can find numerous newspaper blurbs mentioning his name during the 1880s.&nbsp;</div><div><br></div><div>Lundberg died in 1895, leaving the bakery to his wife. She sold the bakery to Swedish national Henry Maerki, who lived there and ran the bakery with his wife until 1906 when they moved back to Sweden. In 1906, Maerki sold the bakery business to George Siglhofer whose name can be found in the sidewalk in front of the bakery.&nbsp;</div><div><br></div><div>The building functioned as a bakery until 1936 before finding itself the home to a variety of businesses, all the while suffering from aging. By the late 1960s, the state made plans to construct a new Texas Department of Transportation building on the property, but the Heritage Society Guild in Austin came to the rescue of the historic building after performing excavations next door and uncovering the foundations of a former state capitol building that was constructed in 1882.&nbsp;</div><div><br></div><div>The building has benefited from public and private funding since the late twentieth century, allowing it to be restored and updated. Today, it operates under the name "The Old Bakery and Emporium" and houses the Lundberg-Maerki Historical Collection. One will find a consignment store and an art gallery that showcases pieces from local artists, as well as an Austin visitor information center for tourists.&nbsp;</div>

Charles Lundberg came to Austin in 1872 during a period of substantial Swedish immigration into the city. He built this bakery in 1876, choosing a location that was near Texas state offices and downtown businesses to attract potential customers. The bakery changed hands among several other families of Swedish immigrants through the Great Depression. The business faced competition from grocers and chains as the tradition of purchasing bread on a daily basis gave way to customer preferences for convenience. The original bakery closed in 1936 and the building was home to a variety of businesses in the decades that followed. Today, the historic building is home to the Old Bakery and Emporium which serves as a visitor's center, art gallery, and consignment shop. 

Lundberg Bakery (1876-1936) and the Old Bakery and Emporium

<p>In the early 1850’s when Austin, then called Waterloo, had
about 600 inhabitants, the Catholics among them constructed St. Patrick’s. The church was not located
in the city hub, but was more anonymously situated at the front of the city, on a small hill overlooking the downtown area.
Laid out in 1839, Austin started growing up exponentially when the railway
arrived in 1871. New citizens and materials for building were arriving, so the parish
decided to build a new church with masonry construction. In 1872 right after
Austin was made the permanent capital of the state, the parish laid the
cornerstone for a new church, choosing a location one block north of the first
building. </p>

<p>Architect Nicholas Clayton designed the church on the basilica-shaped
foundation which the parish started. The church was built in High Victorian
Gothic architectural style. The Barckhof organ from the famed German American
organ builder, installed in the 1890’s was twice renovated by the renowned
organ builder Otto Hoffmann. </p>

<p>Originally this parish belonged to the diocese of Galveston.
The new Diocese of Austin was formed in 1984. The church became a cathedral of
the newly formed diocese from which the new bishop would preside. Right after these
events the church was remodeled, many of its Gothic decorations were removed,
altars and altar rail were replaced with marble, and the baldachino with its
cactus and bluebonnets, evocative of central Texas.&nbsp;</p>

Built between 1872-1884, Saint Mary's Cathedral is a historic church and one of Austin's many landmarks in downtown. The first church, a small stone structure named St. Patrick's was located on the corner of 9th and Brazos streets. The Catholic community grew and eventually wanted a larger building; they also decided to change the name to St. Mary's in 1866. The present church is an excellent example of High Victorian Gothic architecture. The church, which became a cathedral of the newly formed Diocese of Austin in 1984, was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1973.   

Saint Mary's Cathedral

<p>As the population of
Austin, Texas grew during the 1870s, the need for entertainment venues
developed. In 1878, lumber and construction businessman Capt. Charles Millett
constructed a new opera house on the site of his lumber yard. The two-story limestone
building was designed by local architect Frederick E. Ruffini, whose works
included buildings all around the state. At the time of its construction, the
Millett Opera House was the second-largest opera house in Texas, next to the
Galveston Opera House, and boasted the largest auditorium in the entire state.
It featured a balcony, private boxes, a hand painted ceiling, and 800 moveable
seats, enough to house 7% of the entire population of Austin. </p>

<p>The Millett Opera House
quickly became the biggest and most popular social center in Austin. It hosted
numerous theatrical performances, concerts, political conventions, lectures,
and even roller skating; it also briefly housed the Texas state legislature while
the new state capitol building was under construction. Some prominent celebrities
who came to the Opera House included actor Edwin Booth and politician William
Jennings Bryan. In 1898, the Hancock Opera House opened, and the Millett Opera
House’s popularity quickly declined. The building was converted into a dancing
hall and a third story was added as well. </p>

<p><span>After changing hands a
couple times, the Millett Opera House was purchased by the Austin Independent
School District in 1940, which leased out the building to businesses. One of
the most noteworthy tenants was the Maverick-Clarke Office Supply Company,
which came to the building in 1956 and worked to maintain some of its original
features. In 1979, the Austin Independent School District signed a 50-year
lease with the Austin Club. The private membership club was founded in 1949
with 483 original members, including many Texan businessmen and politicians.
Initially the club was housed in the third floor of the Commodore Perry
Building, before moving to the Millett Opera House building in 1980, where it
remains to this day. The Millett Opera House was designated a Texas Historic
Landmark in 1965, and added to the National Register of Historic Places in
1978. <span>&nbsp;</span></span></p>

The Austin Club, formerly the Millett Opera House, was built in 1878 by Austin local lumber seller Captain Charles F. Millet and designed by Frederick Ruffini. When it was completed, the building had the second-largest enclosed space in the state. The opera house was not used only for opera and theatre, but was also the setting for many historical events over the years. Since 1980, the building has been the location of the Austin Club and is rented out for social events. Founded in 1949, the club is the oldest in downtown Austin. 

The Austin Club (Millett Opera House)

<p>In 1859, the two merging churches, Christ Church and the Church of the Epiphany, united to form the Church of St. David’s. This momentous decision symbolized a coming together of contrasting views, with Christ Church being known for its anti-slavery stance and the Church of the Epiphany having a pro-slavery inclination that is now seen as a shameful part of their history, which the later leaders and members all denounced. The church changed its name to "St. David’s" in 1859, and was deliberately chosen to honor Bishop Alexander Gregg, who had presided over a church named St. David’s in Cheraw, South Carolina *5. The newly formed congregation found its home in the sanctuary originally constructed by the Church of the Epiphany between 1853 and 1854.</p><p></p><p>While acknowledging the complex historical context, it is noteworthy that Edward Fontaine, the church's esteemed founder, owned a slave named Jacob Fontaine. Surprisingly, despite prevailing societal norms, Edward provided Jacob with the opportunity to practice his faith and deliver sermons. This opportunity nurtured Jacob's spirit and talents, ultimately enabling him to establish additional churches once slavery was abolished*6. As a revered figure in the African American community, Jacob Fontaine played a pivotal role in Austin, leading the flourishing black community and making significant contributions, including the establishment of the first black newspaper, the Gold Dollar*7.</p><p></p><p>St. David's Episcopal Church has long been an active participant in the community. In 1924, the church acquired the former Physicians and Surgeons Hospital, transforming it into St. David's Hospital. This institution would eventually expand into St. David's HealthCare, a renowned healthcare system comprising 110 facilities, including seven hospitals, throughout Central Texas. During the era of World War II, St. David's demonstrated its dedication to community service by establishing the Church of the Good Shepherd in West Austin, as well as two schools and a chapter of the Order of St. Luke. Presently, the church remains committed to its mission of outreach, running multiple volunteer programs that provide assistance to the homeless, such as laundry services and meals. Additionally, St. David's offers various ministries and musical groups, enriching the lives of its members and fostering a vibrant sense of community*8.</p><p></p><p></p>

<p>St. David's Episcopal Church, established and built in 1854, stands as an enduring testament to Austin's rich history. Designed in the Gothic Revival style by its first pastor, Edward Fontaine. This remarkable structure holds the distinction of being one of the oldest buildings in the city*1. At the time, Edward did have a slave who was the sexton at the church, named Jacob Fontaine. While still a slave, he honed his pastoral skills by preaching in the basement of the old Methodist Church*2. Jacob would go onto become a leader in Austin’s black community, including helping to find 6 more churches, and creating the first black newspaper in Texas, The Gold Dollar*3. At the time of its construction, it was among a select few Episcopalian churches in the entire state of Texas. The church's origins trace back to the merger of two congregations: Christ Church, founded in 1847, and the Church of the Epiphany, established in 1851*4. Notable members of Austin's community attended the church, solidifying its prominence in the region.</p><p></p><p></p>

St. David's Episcopal Church

<div>Jesse Lincoln Driskill (1824-1890), born in Sparta, Tennessee, intended that this hotel become the finest in the South. Crystal chandeliers, gold leaf mirrors, and a host of luxuriant decor adorned the ballrooms, and plenty of opulence existed throughout the entire hotel as well.&nbsp;</div><div><br></div><div>When Driskill came to Texas in 1849, he entered the merchandising business, but&nbsp;he transitioned to the cattle industry in 1857 and went on to enjoy immense success. During the Civil War, his cattle company supplied beef for the Confederate Army and was one of the first ranchers to drive cattle through the Plains after the Civil War.&nbsp; By 1871, the wealthy cattle baron moved to Austin, and thirteen years later, in 1884, he proposed his idea for an elegant hotel to city leaders, offering to pay $7,500 for the lots and building located on Bois d'Arc, now found on 7th Street.&nbsp;</div><div><br></div><div>By 1885, construction began on the brick and limestone building, which eventually cost Driskill $400,00. Five days before Christmas (1886), the famous Driskill opened its doors to the public. The local Daily Statesmen wrote on December 17, 1886: "What a Bonanza Austin possesses in its new caravansary." In the spirit of urban boosterism -- a common practice in the late nineteenth century -- the newspaper blurb touted Austin as a vacation center in hopes that it would boost tourism and urban growth in Austin.&nbsp;</div><div><br></div><div>The first of many formal and state affairs held in 1887 at the Driskill was Governor Sul Ross' inaugural ball. A slew of dignitaries stayed and hosted events at the hotel, As well, for more than thirty years, the Driskill also served as the setting for the University of Texas' annual homecoming ball, an elaborate and lavish event that also included plenty of whiskey offerings.&nbsp;</div><div><br></div><div>To most Austin residents, the Driskill stood as an institution. However, Jesse Driskill was not part of most of the hotel's illustrious history. Because Austin remained somewhat of a "Western" town, few could afford to stay in the hotel (for those that could afford it, they rarely appeared in Austin in the 1880s). While hotels in larger cities charged upwards of $1.00 per night, the Driskill charged $2.50 to $5.00 (including meals), a markedly excessive price for most who passed through Austin. With falling profits and the eventual collapse of his cattle business, Driskill closed the hotel in May 1887, less than a year after it opened.&nbsp;</div><div><br></div><div>Hotel ownership changed hands many times from 1887 through the first few years of the twentieth century, but most owners discovered it challenging to make money at the hotel. For instance, prominent Austin resident George Littlefield, whose house is a landmark in Austin, purchased the hotel for $106,000 in 1895 and subsequently spent $60,000 on renovations. However, when he finally sold the hotel in 1903, he ultimately sold it for a loss of $25,000.&nbsp;</div><div><br></div><div>The hotel underwent another renovation and expansion in 1930, despite the onset of the Great Depression. Four years later, in 1934, future President Lyndon Johnson met his future wife, Claudia Taylor,&nbsp; during their first date at the Driskill dining room. The Johnsons went on to stay at the hotel dozens of times, and Johnson used the hotel as his campaign headquarters during his congressional career and into his eventual election as Vice President.&nbsp;</div>

The Driskill Hotel in Austin was built in 1886 by Jesse Driskill, a local cattle baron who sold the hotel less than a year after it opened. Dignitaries and state officials regularly stayed at the hotel and hosted functions, and Lyndon B. Johnson maintained a headquarters at the Driskill for much of his political career. The luxury hotel served hosted numerous social functions such as state dinners, social balls and the University of Texas homecoming. The hotel almost met its demise in 1969, but a nonprofit organization saved it from demolition by raising $900,000 and purchasing the hotel. In the years that followed the hotel underwent many changes and has been renovated multiple times and continues to serve as one of the city's leading hotels. 

Driskill Hotel

<p>When Austin was selected to be the capital of the Republic of Texas in 1839, the intersection of Congress Avenue and Sixth Street (then Pecan Street) was expected to be an epicenter of business. This was reflected in the price of the land located at the southwest corner of these streets, which was bought by Alexander Russell for $2,800—the most money spent on any plot of land at the time. Growth was slow in the new capital during its early years, especially while the Civil War raged. However, after the end of war and the arrival of the Houston and Texas Central Railroad, Austin’s population started to expand with new arrivals to the city. </p><p><br /></p><p>One of these Texas transplants was a businessman named Emerson Monroe (“E.M.”) Scarbrough. Scarbrough was a native Alabaman and a Confederate veteran of the Civil War who moved to Texas in the 1870s. In 1883 he opened a general store, Scarbrough &amp; Hicks, with R.H. Hicks in the town of Rockdale. A decade later, they opened a new department store in Austin, near the corner of Congress and Sixth. This new venture grew quickly, becoming the fifth largest department store in the entire state, forcing the partners to expand their operations and eventually purchase the lot that went for $2,800 back in 1839. </p><p><br /></p><p>On this busy intersection, they built the first skyscraper in Austin. Designed in the Chicago-style by the Fort Worth architects Sanguinet and Staas, and constructed by the James Black Construction Company of St. Louis, the Scarbrough Building was completed in 1909. At the time, it was the tallest building west of New Orleans, before the competitive George W. Littlefield added an extra story to his own Austin building across the street. Scarbrough moved his department store into the first two floors of the building, with office space occupying the other six. The building was astonishingly modern at the time, with heating, air conditioning, and ice water drinking fountains. With ten different departments, the store employed 30 clerks when it opened, a number that would multiply tenfold over the next 30 years.  </p><p><br /></p><p>After Hicks died in 1912, Scarbrough bought out his share of the business and renamed it E.M. Scarbrough &amp; Sons. Even though Scarborough died in 1925, his sons shepherded the family business to new heights. The store continued to grow, eventually occupying three floors, and was remodeled in the Art Deco style in 1931. It was a major shopping attraction in downtown Austin for decades, until post-World War II suburbanization and the rise of shopping malls forever altered the fate of department stores. </p><p><br /></p><p>Scarbrough &amp; Sons tried to adapt to these changes, opening an outlet store in the Highland Mall in the 1970s and a boutique store in the Central Park Shopping Center, both of which would eventually close. After years of declining business, Scarbrough’s downtown store closed its doors in the winter of 1982-83, ending a nearly century-long history for the beloved Austin staple. However, the Scarbrough Building remains, and has been used as restaurant, retail, and office space for various businesses. Most recently, the dining and entertainment chain Punch Bowl Social opened a downtown location in the historic Austin landmark. </p>

Considered Austin’s first skyscraper, the Scarbrough Building was built in 1909. Originally designed in the Chicago architectural style, it received an Art Deco renovation in 1931. From its inception, it housed the well-known department store Scarbrough & Hicks (later renamed E.M. Scarbrough & Sons), until the store was closed in 1983. Briefly the tallest building west of the Mississippi River, the Scarbrough Building was an important Austin hub through most of the 20th century. Still standing in the heart of downtown, the historic structure is now home to a variety of restaurants, retail stores, and offices. 

Scarbrough Building 

<div>The Norwood Building (constructed in 1929) emerged at a time when Austin changed its polity and made urban planning a priority.&nbsp; The sixteen-story Norwood Building enjoys typical Gothic ornamentation comprised of trefoils, gargoyles, and arches, as well as decor that spoke to the building's tenants and their professions. When completed, the structure stood as the city's tallest commercial building and enjoyed the distinction as Austin's first fully air-conditioned office building, and its adjacent parking structure was Austin's first self-parking auto garage.&nbsp;&nbsp;</div><div><br></div><div>Although Austin's population grew consistently between 1880 and 1920, Austin did not share in the state's booming oil industry. Thus, Austin fell from Texas' fourth largest city to the state's tenth.&nbsp; The town also suffered from poor city management and weak political leadership.&nbsp; In 1905 Austin had few sanitary sewers, hardly any parks or playgrounds, and only one paved street. So, in 1908, the city underwent the first of two polity changes, first in favor of a commission government that proved ineffective and then in 1924 the town adopted a council-manager government that went into effect in 1926 (and remained in place through the 1990s).&nbsp;</div><div><br></div><div>The 1926 government immediately made city planning and beautification its top priority, culminating in an official urban planning project in 1928, one year before the construction of the Norwood Building.&nbsp; A $4.2 million bond issue allowed the city to build new streets, sewers, and parks, as well as a hospital, library, and an airport.&nbsp; Hence, the Norwood Building stands as a monument to Austin's late 1920s urban revival after decades of stagnation.&nbsp;</div><div><br></div><div>One of the sub-histories attached to the building involves its place in African American history and civil rights. Clarence Odie Williams, an Austin native and African American, worked as the building's maintenance engineer from 1929 until 1964. He had a private office in the tower that included a restroom. During the era of segregation (prior to the enactment of the Civil Rights Act of 1964), Williams's office functioned as the only public restroom available to people of color in downtown Austin that did not require one to endure the indignity of Jim Crow. African Americans who worked downtown regularly visited Williams' office.&nbsp;</div><div><br></div><div>The building changed ownership, and names, several times during Williams' tenure and after his departure. However, the building has consistently served professional tenants such as lawyers, doctors, insurance companies, and banks, except for the fourteenth and fifteenth floors that form a two-story penthouse with rooftop gardens on the corners. And, although a host of skyscrapers built during the late twentieth- and early twenty-first-century now towers above the Norwood Building, the building remains functional and continues to serve as the home to a mixture of professional tenants (and it remains as the city's only Gothic Revival- or Commercial Gothic-styled commercial structure).&nbsp;</div>

Constructed in 1929 during a period of urban planning and modernization, Norwood Tower remains the only Gothic Revival- or Commercial Gothic-styled commercial structure in Austin. When the building was completed, it was the tallest structure in the city and the first to have air conditioning in every office. It was also the first building to have its own parking garage. For several decades, the building's maintenance engineer was African American. Recognizing the indignity of Jim Crow that dictated life in public spaces prior to the Civil rights Act of 1964, Clarence Odie Williams made the bathroom in his private office available to people of color.   

Norwood Building (Norwood Tower)

<p>The Classical and Baroque revival style structure was built
in 1915, constructed by Ernest Nalle in only eight months. It was designed by
John Eberson as the most deluxe vaudeville and silent movie house in the state.
Some of its outstanding features include a proscenium arch with a painting of
the patron of music, St. Cecilia, and near-perfect acoustics, as well as a self-supporting
balcony built without columnns. Eberson constructed approximately 1,200 Theaters
during his career, and The Paramount Theater in Austin is the oldest of the
fewer than 25 that are still in existence. </p>

<p>The theater has went through three important periods since its opening.
The first, from 1915 to 1929, was a period when the theater was known as the
Majestic and functioned as a vaudeville house. This was a time when the Marx Brothers and
Will Rogers were performing in the theater. One of the theater's earliest and
still most famous performers was the magician Harry Houdini. </p>

<p>The second phase is when the theater was sold to Carl
Hoblitzelle in 1929. This was the time when the extensive and ornate art deco
remodeling was completed and the theater was renamed as the “Paramount”. For the
next thirty years, some of the greatest Hollywood films were played in
the theater. Notable stage productions and performances were also on stage in the Paramount
during this period. </p>

<p>By the 1950s, the Paramount was almost exclusively used as a
movie house. By 1970, the venue had fallen into a state of disrepair. Many theatres across the country were closing their doors during this period. &nbsp;During
the 1970s, the theater underwent a restoration. In 1975, the Paramount held its first
live performance in years, and the decades following were nothing short of
prosperous, as the theatre hosted Hollywood movie premieres and popular musical
and performing arts acts, as well as producing its own shows. On July 8, 1977 it
was added on the National Register of Historic Places. &nbsp;</p>

<p>The theater continues its life today as a performing art organization which presents and produces a broad range of live
acts. In 2000, the Paramount Theatre for the Performing Arts and the State
Theatre Austin merged to form the Theatre Alliance (ATA).&nbsp;</p>

The Paramount Theater is one of Austin's most iconic landmarks. Located on Congress Avenue, Paramount Theater was built at the precise location of the office of Sam Houston, one of Texas's Founding Fathers. This was also the location of the Avenue Hotel--one of the leading establishments in Austin during the 19th century. The Paramount was built in 1915, and remains the oldest theater in Austin. Preserved and restored through the generosity and effort of citizens over the past few decades, the theater continues to host great musical and cultural events. It was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1977.

Paramount Theater

<div>The Austin U.S. Courthouse (built in 1936) enjoys an association with numerous federal construction projects intended to alleviate the economic issues associated with the Great Depression during the 1930s by reducing unemployment. Architecturally, the Austin U.S. Courthouse reflects the 1930s trend and organizational influence of the Beaux-Arts architectural style and the Moderne architectural movement, sometimes described as a compromise between tradition and progress.</div><div><br></div><div>Austin, founded in 1839, became the Texas state capital in 1873. A few years later, between 1877 - 81, a federal courthouse and post office was built. The post office outgrew the space and moved in 1914 while the courts remained in the building until the now-historic building opened its doors in the 1930s. Even by the 1920s, officials deemed it necessary to construct a larger building to adequately accommodate the growing needs of the federal district court and various federal agencies. But, it wasn't until the Great Depression when the President and Congress funded construction projects that allowed for the development of a new courthouse and federal building; U.S. Congressman J. P. Buchanan introduced a bill in 1834 that appropriated $415,000 for the construction of a U.S. courthouse in Austin. Construction on the courthouse building began in 1935 and took eighteen months to finish. Though planned to be completed in May 1936, cold weather and other delays pushed its opening until September 1936.&nbsp;</div><div><br></div><div>The U.S. courthouse housed such agencies as the Collector of Internal Revenue, the U.S. Weather Bureau, the Department of Justice; the United States District Court for the Western District of Texas; the United States Probation Office, and a grand jury room. As well, future U.S. President Lyndon B Johnson maintained an office in the building from the 1940s through 1961 when he served first as a U.S. Representative and then a U.S. Senator; he moved out when he became the Vice President.&nbsp;</div><div><br></div><div>While the U.S. Treasury Department, notably the Public Works Administration (PWA) created as part of the New Deal, handled most federal construction projects, and ultimately oversaw the Austin U.S. Courthouse project, it is unique in that it's one of the few buildings in which the federal government allowed for the hiring of private architects to design the building. Well-known Austin architect Charles H. Page, of C. H. Page and Son, developed the plans for the new U.S. courthouse, and Kenneth Franzheim of New York served as consulting architect. The Austin U.S. Courthouse maintains much of the 1930s Beaux-Arts architectural characteristics common among government buildings, but also design features influenced by the Moderne architectural movement typical among PWA projects.&nbsp;</div><div><br></div><div>The Austin U.S. Courthouse is a four-story steel-and-concrete building with symmetrical rectangular form, cream-colored limestone, recessed vertical window bays, gray granite steps, four bronze doors and adorned by stylized eagles and geometric detailing.&nbsp; The lobbies and corridors are comprised of marble and plaster walls, terrazzo floors, ceilings with bronze molding, and plenty of ornate features such as chandeliers and artwork.&nbsp;</div><div><br></div><div>The federal agencies and courts moved to a new courthouse in 2012, which led to discussions about the fate of the old courthouse.&nbsp; After four years of debate, Travis County took ownership of the building in 2016 and announced it would spend $28 million to renovate the building to use as a county probate court building by 2020.&nbsp;</div>

Built under the direction of the Public Works Administration in 1936, as part of the New Deal program intended to alleviate unemployment and provide a boost to the economy, the U.S. Courthouse served numerous federal agencies and as an office for Lyndon B. Johnson. Federal agencies used the building through 2012 before leaving for a more modern facility. However, in 2020, it will re-open under the direction of Travis County, serving as home to county offices and probate courts.

United States Courthouse (Austin, Texas)

<span><p>The Austin Women’s Liberation was a cultural movement of local groups aiming to change society’s expectations of women. As part of the New Left, women’s liberation grew out of Students for a Democratic Society (SDS), whose leadership was largely male-dominated. Issues of sexism were raised in the Austin SDS chapter, but they were often ignored, which is why this feminist movement gained traction only after the demise of SDS. Underground media played a large part in furthering the women’s liberation agenda. Women’s Liberation groups also addressed topics such as birth control, job discrimination, and other shared experiences of women, with many conversations taking place at the feminist Austin Women’s Center located at 711 San Antonio Street.&nbsp;</p><p>Most of the Women’s Liberation movement in Austin, Texas emerged from already-established New Left organizations, as was also largely the case nationally. In the Austin chapters of SDS and the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC), whose leadership was male-dominated, women raised the issue of sexism but were generally ignored. Sara Evans, a women’s rights activist noted that “although the new left was engaged in a cultural revolt… it reflected more than it challenged the underlying sexual stereotypes [of the period].” The demise of SDS revealed the opportunity for a feminist left. Some of the first activists, such Alice Embree, were involved with SDS. Other leaders such as Linda and Judy Smith were never attracted to SDS.&nbsp;</p><p>In keeping with leftist ideology, the women’s liberation wanted to redefine society’s expectations for women. They worked to dismantle the socialization of Americans that led to the traditional gender roles and development of certain ideas: “Women’s liberation means liberation from the role of woman that we have had built inside us by our society.” Women’s liberation was concerned with the psychology of sexism, aiming to divest themselves and others of the sex roles that penetrated their psyches. Feminists believed that liberation from a society with such absurd and restrictive gender roles would benefit all people, not just women. Many women essentially refused to participate in a society that oppressed women by refusing to embrace traditional gender roles, beauty standards, and relationships.</p><p>The tactics used by these Women’s Liberation groups were heavily influenced by the New Left. &nbsp;For example, women in Austin “planned seminars on automobile mechanics, printing, gardening, and cooking, continuing the broader counterculture’s emphasis on self-sufficiency.” &nbsp;Inspired by the counterculture, the ‘cultural feminism’ that was a part of the Austin Women’s movement since its very beginning became a form of political protest. One of the most common forms of Women’s activism was guerilla theater performances designed to raise awareness of the inequalities suffered by women. One of the most memorable examples of this was a “Make a Man Feel Like a Sex Object Day” organized by Pat Cuney and Lori Hansel, among others. On this day, women ‘whistled and catcalled’ men walking by, in an attempt “just to kind of make [men] feel like [women] were made to feel every day, and they didn’t like it a bit.”</p><p>The New Left ideology of the Women’s Liberation movement separated it from other national feminist movements. The National Organization for Women (NOW) wanted for women to share full and equal participation in society with men. While Women’s Liberation focused on changing consciousness and culture, NOW focused on gaining equality through political and legal action. NOW had a very active Austin chapter that worked closely with other women’s rights groups such as the Women’s Equity Action League (WEAL) and the Texas Women’s Political Caucus. In contrast with the young, leftist rebels of the Liberation movement, members of these women’s rights groups were mostly older professional women, who were unfavorable of women’s liberation radicalism.</p><p>Newspapers and newsletters facilitated communication between and within cities. One example was the Rag, an underground newspaper published in Austin, Texas. The Rag was home to many former SDS members and New Left activists such as Judy Smith and Alice Embree, who both were very active in women’s liberation. The Rag became a platform for feminists to highlight the prevalence of sexism and to spread information on topics such as safe methods of abortion and upcoming workshops. Another important example of feminist media is the Red River Women’s Press, which originally started as Fly by Night Printers. This Press printed everything from general ‘movement printing’ to feminist songbooks. The Press’ slogan was: “The Rising of the Women Is the Rising of Us All,” which originated from a Massachusetts textile strike in 1912.</p>A particularly important focus of Austin Women’s Liberation was abortion. Strict laws in Texas prohibited abortion, forcing women who could afford it to travel to Mexico, where it was legal. Women who could not afford to travel were left without a safe way to end their pregnancy. Activists began writing articles in the Rag about safe and unsafe methods of abortion. In 1970, the Austin Women’s Liberation Committee to Repeal Abortion Laws began engaging with statewide abortion rights activists. Judy Smith formed a team of lawyers— Sarah Weddington, UT Law School grad, and Norma McCorvey, who used the pseudonym Jane Roe—and began challenging the state to legalize abortion. The court case, known as Roe v. Wade, shaped abortion law after a dividied United States Supreme Court decision.&nbsp;</span>

In 1970, the feminist Austin Women's Organization opened the Austin Women’s Center at 711 San Antonio Street. The Center was located across the street from the Austin Woman’s Club was referred to as “Everywoman’s Center” to reflect the inclusive orientation of the founders who sought to better understand the experiences of diverse women as they explored how social norms affected women. The Women’s Center also sponsored many different workshops on sexuality, career advising, and birth control. During meetings at the Women’s Center, many women realized for the first time that frustrations and anxieties they experienced daily were also shared by many other women. Women began to link personal problems with larger social and political issues, which they then worked together to change. The Center operated throughout the 1970s and early 1980s.  

Austin Women’s Center (1970-1982)

<p>

</p><p>The Austin Public Library has its origins in 1913, when Mayor A. P. Wooldridge petitioned the Texas state legislature to re-designate a vacant lot to be used for a public library. Permission was granted, but the lot remained empty for another decade. In 1925, the Austin Chapter of the American Association of University Women, under the leadership of Grace Delano Clark, began a campaign to create a public library in the city of Austin, Texas. A temporary building was constructed by 1926, and in 1928 voters approved a $150,000 bond to build a permanent structure. In the 1932 architect Hugo Franz Kuehne, one of Austin’s most noteworthy architects, was commissioned to design the library. After one year of construction, the first permanent library in the city’s history opened on March 10, 1933.</p><p>

</p><p>The Italian Renaissance style building was created almost entirely by local contributors. The library’s architect, Hugo Kuehne, was an Austin native and first dean of the University Of Texas School Of Architecture. The ornamental wrought iron on the balconies, windows, and doors were made by Fortunat Weigl. Interior woodwork was made by master woodcarver Peter Mansbendel, an immigrant from Switzerland. The tracery frescoes on the ceilings were painted by Jessen and Peter Alidi.</p><p>

</p><p>The building served as the main library until 1979, when library functions moved to the John Henry Faulk Library, a newer and far larger facility next door. In 1981, restoration architectural firm Bell, Klein and Hoffman formulated plans to convert the old library into research and archives facilities for the Austin History Center.&nbsp;In 1983, the building was restored, refurbished, and reopened as the Austin History Center. With its prominent location, fine architectural detailing, and continued strong role in the cultural life of the community, the Austin Public Library building survives as a significant local landmark until today.</p><p>

</p>

The Austin History Center, one of the foremost local history collections in Texas, was founded in 1955 as the Austin/Travis County Collection of the Austin Public Library. It houses thousands of documents, photographs, maps, artifacts, and personal histories of the city and region. It contains the Austin Public Library's local history collection as well as the city's historical archives. The building originally opened as the Austin Public Library in 1933 and served as the main library until 1979. The Italian Renaissance structure is considered to be the most prominent public work of Austin native Hugo Kuehne, founding dean of the University Of Texas School Of Architecture.

Austin History Center

<div>Four generations of the Hirshfeld family lived in the two Austin homes -- the cottage (1873) and the large house (1885). The Hirshfeld family built both structures, with the larger home demonstrating the increased wealth of the family.&nbsp;</div><div><br></div><div>Henry Hirshfeld (born in Germany in 1834) emigrated to the U.S. at the age of 15. He subsequently embarked upon a military career, first in the Texas Military Brigade as a private under Gen. E.S.C. Robertson in Georgetown.&nbsp;</div><div><br></div><div>After the Civil War, in 1866, Hirshfeld settled in Austin and worked as the proprietor of Capital Clothing Co. He then married Jennie Melasky in 1868, whose father enjoyed financial success in the dry goods industry. As a result, Henry Hirshfeld evolved into a highly successful merchant so that by 1871, Governor Edmund Davis appointed Hirshfeld as the first vice president of the new Board of Trade. In 1890, Hirshfeld established the Austin National Bank. His two sons, Jake and Morris later served as directors at the bank.&nbsp;&nbsp;</div><div><br></div><div>Hirshfeld built the one-story limestone cottage on the west side of the lot in 1873, where his family lived for a dozen years. However, his financial success and eight children convinced Hirshfeld to build a much bigger home. Thus, in 1885, construction started on the grand, two-story brick and cut-stone house with Victorian and Eastlake styling; the family moved into the house in 1886.&nbsp; Exterior adornment highlights include stained glass, ornate woodwork, and elaborate limestone detailing.&nbsp;</div><div><br></div><div>In addition to his successful businesses, he also proved to be a leader among Austin's Jewish Community; he founded the Temple Beth Israel, the city's first Jewish congregation.&nbsp; As well, he was a charter member of the Mason's Hill City Lodge, and he participated in the German singing group known as Austin Sängerrunde.&nbsp;</div><div><br></div><div>Members of the Hirshfeld family continued to reside in the house until 1973 when Henry and Jennie's daughter, Leila Hirshfeld Bernheim passed away. The complex most recently served the offices for Texas A&amp;M University in Austin from 1987 to 2016, where it got the nickname "Aggie Embassy," which refers to the Texas A&amp;M mascot (The Aggies).&nbsp; It was sold again in 2018 to a private group, but it remains protected from any noticeable renovations, and no building is allowed to built nearby that would deter from its viewing.&nbsp;</div>

The historic cottage and house, built in 1873 and 1885 respectively, served as the home to Henry and Jennie Hirshfeld and their eight children. Henry was one of many German immigrants to arrived to Austin in the mid-eighteenth century and he went on to become a prosperous merchant, helped in part by his marriage to Jennie whose family already enjoyed success in the same type of work.  Henry also established the Austin National Bank and the first Jewish congregation in Austin with the construction of the Temple Beth Israel. 

Texas State Capitol and Austin History Tour

Moonlight Towers

Introduction

Images

Backstory and Context

Sources

Additional Information